Entry #2- Media Censorship in the Middle East

The Middle East, especially more conservative countries like Saudi Arabia and Egypt, is infamous to the West for their pervasive censorship of media. This censorship is applied to almost every type of media available to citizens: news, films, television, music, etc. These governments, or the departments responsible for controlling the media, censor out sex scenes, sometimes even including hugging or kissing, curse words, nudity, homosexuality, and other concepts that are in conflict with sharia law.

Examples:

-Dubai cut out about 45 minutes from the three hour movie, "The Wolf of Wall Street". They censored every curse word, as well as other "distasteful" scenes. This is common, and censors are supposed to take out anything that seems harmful to national security and other national ideals.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/10572810/Dubai-censors-cut-quarter-of-The-Wolf-of-Wall-Street.html

-Iran's news agency, "Fars", photoshopped the dress that Michelle Obama wore onscreen at the Oscars. Her actual dress had thin straps and was somewhat low cut. After their changes, it had short sleeves and the neckline was much higher. This was to keep in accord with common dress guidelines for Islam women, who aren't supposed to show their arms or much other skin.

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/25/michelle-obama-oscars-dress-iran

-A secret film group exists in Saudi Arabia. About 60 people met in a warehouse, locked themselves in, and proceeded to screen a film. They found out where it was being held through texts, and all parked far away so as to not seem suspicious. Not many films are approved by the Saudi censors, but many people have had success with finding film on the black market.

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/oct/15/saudi-secret-cinema-red-wax


Other:
http://artsfreedom.org/?p=1521
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/05/egyptian-director-hany-fawzy-fears-film-homosexuality-gay-love-family-secrets
http://www.theguardian.com/film/filmblog/2012/dec/07/this-is-not-a-film

Dates in Arab Culture

Dates in Arab Culture Last year my mother and I took a trip to Palestine and I was immediately struck by the prevalence of dates in Arabic society. Everything was decorated with drawings of date palms and dates seemed to be the ingredient of choice for every Arab dish. My personal favorite was maamoul cookies and a cinnamon and date cake with Arabic coffee. Initially, I thought the dominance of Arab food and society was because it is a common source of vegetation in the Arab world. This is absolutely a part of it. For example, dates are one of the highest grossing and economically prosperous ventures since the 1970s. In addition, over 40 million date trees have been planted. This is not a new crop in the Arab world either. There is proof that date trees have been growing in some parts of Arabia since 4,000 BCE. Since then, the Arabs exported the seed all over the world. Today, Saudi Arabia is the globe’s largest date distributer. Dates have also come to have a deeper meaning in Arab society. Many muslims choose to break their fast by eating dates. This is because the Prophet Muhammad once said “If anyone of you is fasting, let him break his fast with dates. In case he does not have them, then with water. Verily water is a purifier”. In this quote, the Prophet Muhammad suggests that dates are just as purifying and cleansing as water. The Prophet’s wife also used, Sayyidah Ayisha, would give dates to those suffering from giddiness. It was very interesting to me that the importance of dates has a spiritual as well as a practical significance in the Arab world.

Salat as a part of Muslim/Arabic Religious Culture

Metin ERDOGAN – Cultural Entry 1

Salat as a part of Muslim/Arabic Religious Culture

            It reminds about God throughout the day At fixed times, no matter how busy you are, you have to take out just a few minutes and you’re remembering, OK, why am I here? Each worshipper thinks that while I was doing whatever I was doing, was I doing it in a manner pleasing to God?

the second most important of Islam’s five pillars, after professing that there is no god worthy of worship but God and that the Prophet Mohammed is God’s messenger is considered to be Praying five times a day. Each prayer includes a series of movements, supplications, and recitations from the Quran, Islam’s holy book, in its original Arabic. Muslims/Arabs consider prayer to be a spiritual and physical act, with various standing, bending, and prostrating postures symbolizing devotion to God. When you’re at your lowest point, your head is on the ground, you’re saying Oh, praise to my God, the most high. salat symbolizes what Islam considers the purpose of creation: to worship God.

The first prayer, called “Fajr” is performed before sunrise; the second prayer, “Thuhr” comes just after noon; the third prayer, “Asr,” arrives during mid-afternoon; the fourth prayer, “Maghrib,” is just after sunset; and the last prayer, “Isha,” is performed at night. These prayers are considered an obligation for every Muslim/Arab by the time he or she reaches puberty.

Preparation

Every muslim performs a ritual ablution, called “wudu before each prayer. The process involves washing the hands, face, arms and feet. Wudu symbolizes a state of physical and spiritual purity required to stand before God. There’s a saying (in Islam) that our external form impacts our internal state, just as internal state has an impact on external form. (Muslims/Arabs) all pray in the same uniform way, wherever they are, whether they’re in India or Indonesia or Saudi Arabia or America or Japan, They all pray in the same manner, facing the same direction. As a muslim I think it’s just where you put your priorities, If you put (prayer) at a high level, then it’s not hard. In the morning getting up from our sleep, so beginning that day by praying to Lord and creator,” And then at noon… just as we take our lunch break to replenish our physical body, we take time to reaffirm our commitment to our creator and thereby replenish our spirit. At night, before we turn in and go to sleep to regroup, we don’t know if we’re going to see the new day, Once again, taking time to acknowledge the creator and the rights he has over mankind.”

Salat helps keep people accountable for their daily actions and lets them have a personal relationship with God.

 

http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2011/03/21/why-do-muslims-pray-five-times-daily/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salat

http://www.namazzamani.net/turkce/ic_namaz.htm



The Square

After a friend who studied abroad in Egypt recommended that I watch the film "The Square," I easily found the film in its entirety on YouTube.  I thought I would watch the film in small parts, but as soon as I started I knew I could not stop.  The film is filled with live footage from Tahrir Square in Cairo.  Protesters give first hand accounts from their experiences.  Each person introduced has a different mentality and philosophy which adds depth to the story.  The film gives us insight into a side of the conflict that is not commonly depicted in the media.  There are peaceful, beautiful scenes of togetherness, juxtaposed with scenes depicting death and brutality.  The film raises questions about politics, and religion and the role that each should have in a nation.  An interesting aspect of the film is the Muslim Brotherhood, and their involvement in the changes in Egypt since protests started.  Admittedly, I am not abundantly informed on the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, so the film served as a starting point for more research.  The film combines the heated emotions of the protests with the passions of the people fighting for liberties to create a well-organized and informative selection of images and dialogues that serve to inform and inspire viewers. At times, the film can be difficult to watch but it is definitely worth the effort.  I was interesting to hear the Egyptian accent come out, especially on word like army where the "jeem" is pronounced with a hard "gah."

The film has been nominated for an Academy Award and many other awards.  The film is not shown in Egypt. I highly recommend watching the film.

Culture Entry #1: The Sunni/Shi'a Divide

Islam has two main denominations, Sunni and Shia Islam. Unfortunately, the divide between the two often has violent repercussions for civilians. This divide between denominations does not stem from the tenants of Islam, as both agree upon the Quran as the holy book and the fundamental Five Pillars of Islam. The reason for the split lies in a division between who was the chosen successor to the Prophet Muhammad.

Sunni Muslims accept that Muhammad chose Abu Bakr as his successor, while Shi’a Muslims believe that he chose his cousin, Ali. What’s interesting about Ali is that after the initial divide between the two groups, he conceded the Caliphate to Abu Bakr. When each Caliph died he named his successor until the Third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan was murdered. Ali was chosen as the Fourth Caliph and his reign was contentious due to opposition by Muhammad’s widow Aisha. Aisha believed that the murderers of Uthman escaped too easily, and that Ali was not doing enough to bring them to justice. The escalation of this conflict culminated in Aisha leading a host of troops against Ali. In Basra, in southern Iraq, Aisha was defeated and subsequently sent back to Medina.

Despite the historical succession of Muhammad being in favor of the Sunni population, the Shi’a believe that Ali was the true First Caliph and that those who came before him are false. Another Shi’a belief is that Ali was the first Imam, meaning one who leads, and that his descendants have inherited this quality, which in Shi’a culture gives imams “quasi-divine” qualities, including the ability to do no wrong and political authority within the community. Sunni Muslims provide a stark distinction to this, believing that Imams are renowned religious scholars who lead the daily prayers. Sunni Islam’s formal name is Ahl al-Sunnah, which means “people of the Sunnah,” and the word sunnah means “custom” or “tradition.” Shi'a Islam is short for 'Shiat Ali', meaning 'partisans of Ali'. While Sunni Muslims consist of approximately 75% of the world population of Muslims, they are not the majority in every country in the Arab world. For example, Shi’a majority countries are Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan, with Iran being the predominant country with a Shi’a majority population.

The current conflict in Syria has become a prime example of the conflict between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims. Currently the Al-Assad regime is in power, and Bashar Al-Assad is an Alawite Muslim. The Alawite denomination is an offshoot of Shi’a Islam, and the Shi’a population is the minority in Syria. Therefore, in Syria, there is conflict between a government of the minority denomination and the people of Syria, who are approximately 74% Sunni Muslim. Although there does not appear to be a resolution to the conflict between these two denominations across the Middle East due to ingrained cultural discrimination and bitterness, progress is often made on the small scale, where people of all denominations of Islam come together as a community.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html
http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia%E2%80%93Sunni_relations

Cultural Entry #1: Islam, Security, and the Sochi Olympics

Chris Hourani With the Olympics in Sochi in full swing, the prominence of potential security risks caused by Islamic extremist groups are at an all time high for the Games. By awarding Sochi the opportunity to host the Games, the IOC has signed on to all of the risks that come with one of the most religiously contentious regions in the entire world. Sochi, a small resort city perched at the base of the Caucasus Mountains, is surrounded by areas that are full of political and religious strife, with the two being tied together more often than not. Georgia, with whom Russia has had a history of military conflict and where clashes between different religious groups are daily commonalities, lies less than 20 miles away. Armenia, along with its bloody history of religious conflicts between Muslims and Christians, lies not too much further south. The mostly Islamic Azerbaijan lies just east of Armenia. In addition, the two Russian Republics of Chechnya and Dagestan, hotbeds of Islamic extremist groups, are just across the mountains from Sochi. With the Boston Marathon and Volgograd Bombings, both carried out by Chechen nationalists, fresh in the minds of both Western and Russian minds, the IOC has its work cut out for itself in terms of maintaining security throughout the Olympics. All of this friction, staying consistent with Samuel Huntington’s theory of the Clash of the Civilizations, is taking place at the crosshairs of the Islamic World and Eastern Europe. Culturally, this holds great weight, for it exposes religious intolerance as the most prominent roadblock to an integrated world in today’s society. As the run-up to the Olympics has proven, an immediate amalgamation of cultures often causes an increase in tension between opposing factions. Curbing the tides of these violent tendencies will be the biggest challenge to these highly contested regions. The bottom line is that modernizing nations on the fringes of the Islamic world are going to have to address the problem of intolerance between Christians and Muslims head on in order to continue to make any economic or societal progress. There is no better example of this than the Sochi Olympics. Sources: The Clash of Civilizations, Samuel Huntington CNN.com

Culture Entry 1: The Square and the Egyptian Revolution

The BU Arabic Program page on Facebook has proven to be a chest of treasures, its gems being its unending supply of Arabic scholarships, study abroad programs, and cultural opportunities. Needless to say, I visit it often. A few visits ago I came across a post publicizing a screening of Jehane Noujaim's Oscar- nominated documentary, "The Square". At a quick glance my mind was made: I called my friend, bought our tickets, and two days later we sat in front of the screening that would spark my interest in the Egyptian Revolution of 2011.

The film documented, more than anything else, the unrelenting passion of six young Egyptian activists-Ahmed Hassan, Magdy Ashour, Khalid Abdalla, Aida El Kashef, Ramy Essam, and Ragia Omran- who utilize the power of music, media, and persistence to show they are a force the government will not easily dissolve. In fact, it has been two years since the beginning of the revolution and it is still largely apparent that the revolutionaries are not leaving The Square. 

The Square, known as Tahrir Square in Egypt, holds great symbolism in that it is the designated place where the Egyptians come together in solidarity against the corrupt regime. The bulk of what is occurring in the revolution- demonstrations, marches, riots, and civil resistance- all occurs in this exact square. The Square is so widely seen as the pulsating heart of the Egyptian movement that its name has become synonymous with the word “revolution”.

The uprising began on January 25^th, 2011 when citizens took to the streets demanding free elections, freedom of speech, an increase in jobs, higher wages, a stop to food price inflation, and the eradication of the root of country’s problems- the corruption that pervades the Egyptian government. Protesters also demanded that the thirty- year Hosni Mubarak regime come to an end.

   

Mubarak stepped down permanently to appease protesters and appointed former head of the Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate Omar Suleiman as Vice President. The constitution was suspended, both houses of parliament dissolved, and the military gained rule over Egypt for the six months prior to the planned election. Mubarak also stood trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors. If found guilty, he could face the death penalty.

Although he was found guilty he only faced life imprisonment, but this sentence was overturned on appeal and he received a retrial that led to no consequences.

In June of that same year the Islamist Mohamed Morsi won the presidential election, and on June 30^th he was inaugurated as the 5^th president of Egypt. 

This has appeased only the Muslim Brotherhood of Egypt who believes the state should be run by Islamic rule, but a large portion of the population, including five of the six cast members and activists of “The Square,” believes Egypt should be run by secular rule.

Despite the efforts of the youths of “The Square” and the millions of citizens who have tenaciously sacrificed their lives for the cause, Egyptians have a long way to achieve their desired goal. Perhaps next they must use The Square as a place where they may construct a new constitution, one that protects the needs of the people, not the desires of the government.

 http://thesquarefilm.com/about

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Revolution_of_2011

Culture Entry #1 Palestinian Dabke

Culture Entry #1 Palestinian Dabke

Moona Abdulkerim

There are a numerous amount of dances that originated in the Arab world that are still being practiced today.  However, the dance I will focus on in this entry is the Palestinian dance dabke. Many Palestinians used to build their own houses from straw and mud. In order to keep the roof from leaking, the men would often times stomp down on their roofs together in order to compact the straw and dirt to form a waterproof roof. Since this was a common practice, musicians started to play music for them as they stomped on top of their roofs’ in unison which led them to stomp in a rhythmic form creating dabke.

Dabke then went on to be practiced during weddings, parties, and other special occasions, and eventually became the national dance of Palestinian. When practiced professionally, dabke usually tells a story.

Dabkeh is a fun and inclusive dance, since there are usually no less than 10 people who are participating all at once. Everyone holds hands and forms a semicircle while the laweeh or dabkeh leader determines the pace, rhythm, and direction of the dabkeh circle.  Traditionally, there will be an Oud player as well as someone playing the oriental drum.   

There are several different types of dabkeh but the most common one among the youth is Al Karradiyeh and Al Tayyara. These forms of dabkeh are common among the youth because of their fast pace and strong steps.

Dabke is not only an entertaining dance, but a symbol for Palestinian nationalism and identity. It helps preserve Palestinian culture, even though several Palestinians were forced to flee due to the war to neighboring countries. The dance has been observed to be performed in refugee camps throughout West Bank and Gaza as well as all over the world Palestinians reside.  

Sources:

http://globalartscentral.com/tag/dabke/

http://thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=3057&ed=180&edid=180

http://wfae.org/post/palestinians-celebrate-culture-through-dabke-dance

Eid al-Adha

Culture Portfolio #1
Will Orman

Eid al-Adha is one of two holidays celebrated by Muslims worldwide, along with Eid al-Fitr. Eid al-Adha means “Festival of the sacrifice,” and the celebration of this holiday honors Ibrahim’s consent to sacrifice his son Ismail to show his devotion to God, before God gave Ibrahim a lamb to sacrifice instead. This willingness to sacrifice his son distinguished Ibrahim among other polytheists. The holiday occurs on the 10th day of the month Dhu al-Hijjah, at the end of the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, and lasts four days, during which people gather to pray, eat together, sometimes exchange gifts, and generally exchange well wishes.

In keeping with the story of Ibrahim’s sacrifice of the lamb representing the great sacrifice of his son, Eid al-Adha feasts typically include the sacrifice of some animal that Muslims are allowed to eat, potentially a lamb or a goat. Contrary to popular belief by non-Muslims, the sacrifice is unrelated to atonement for sins, i.e. using the blood of the sacrificed animal to symbolize washing oneself of one’s sins. According to Islam, Allah has given man power over animals and allowed us to use them for food, but we must pay him respect when we are to take a life for food, as a reminder that life is sacred.

Muslims sometimes send money home to their places of origin to fund a sacrifice for those who otherwise might not have a feast. The meat of the sacrifice itself is mostly given away, with only one-third eaten by the immediate relatives of the family who slaughters it. One-third is given to friends, and the last third is donated to the needy. This generosity reflects the Muslim value of giving up some of one’s goods, both to tighten bonds of friendship and to give aid to those less fortunate. Muslims often invite their non-Muslim friends to the festivities so that they might become better acquainted with Muslim traditions.

To prepare for this holiday, Muslims are encouraged to make ablutions, or wash themselves before entering the mosque, and offer the pre-sunrise prayer; attend to personal cleanliness; and put on their newest or best clothes. Wealthy Muslims often sacrifice their best animals, as long as they are halal, as a symbol of the sacrifice of Ibrahim’s only son, but the animals to be sacrificed must be of a certain age and quality. In the two days around the holiday, more than 100 million animals are slaughtered annually. Within the Muslim community there is generally an effort to ensure that every believer without means may also participate in this sacrificial meal.

Because most of the dishes consumed during Eid al-Adha are savory, the holiday is sometimes called the Salty Eid, in contrast with the Sweet Eid, Eid al-Fitr. These dishes are often centered around beef or mutton, depending on which animal was slaughtered. A barbecue is customary on the first day of the celebrations, and the animal’s fried liver is used for breakfast in various types of kebabs. However, soft drinks are still a popular accompaniment to these meals.

http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/us/eid-al-adha

http://islam.about.com/od/hajj/a/adha.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eid_Al-Adha
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eid_cuisine

Culture Portfolio #1 Arabic Cuisine

Gabriela Serrano

Culture portfolio #1

One element that I have always admired of the Arab culture is the importance that they place on hospitality. Learning welcoming words taught me that the guest is the most important person in the house, and unfortunately, that idea is not present in many cultures. Dinners in the Arab culture in which guests attend usually include meats, teas and coffee as well. Arab cuisine has many characteristics, such as the use of spices, tahini, couscous, or curry. Other traditional items are Marag, okra, bread, hummous, falafel, taboula, koshari, reyash, among others.

 Maklooba is a meal most often prepared in Palestinian countries, but in different cities adding some sort of spice or herb usually enhances the taste. This dish made out of rice and meat or chicken. During large family meetings, meat is traditionally cooked instead of chicken.

Dates are a very common and popular Middle Eastern dessert. Not only are they healthy and nutritious, but they are appealing to the palate. An interesting fact that I found out about dates is that in ancient times, they were eaten by nomadic times when there was a scarce food supply. There are many variations of recipes in which dates are used such as them being baked into sugar cookies, dates stuffed with almonds, and Hunayi. Hunayi is a date recipe prepared mostly in the wintertime.

Another important element of the Arabic cuisine and culture is Arabic coffee. Being from Colombia I understand the importance of coffee as a cultural element. Arabic coffee is made to serve and in low quantities. Instead of being made in a normal coffee machine, they are made in an enamelware or brass pot. There is a specific way of grinding and roasting the coffee beans, which requires a certain amount of expertize.

This very large and important element of the Arabic culture is a blend or combination of Indian, Middle Eastern, and Mediterranean food. The importance of the food lies in the matter of hospitality, which is the main focus of the Arabic Cuisine. Food also plays an important role in during the holidays. The major Muslim holiday is the Eid, which marks the end of Ramadan. For Christian Arabs, the holidays are Christmas, Lenten season, and Easter.

You can tell a lot about a country’s history through its cuisine. In the Middle East, wheat and fermentation were cultivated and discovered. Also, during the Persian Empire, food such as fruits, poultry, and rice became part of the every day cuisine. Also, during the Ottoman Empire, pastries and sweet coffee was brought into the area and like I have already mentioned, coffee is an extremely important element of the Arabic cuisine and is part of the day-to-day life.

            This was interesting to me because in Colombia we have a very particular cuisine and I was not informed of the fact that we share many of our traditions and ingredients with the Arabic culture. It is interesting to analyze how each meal and ingredient has a purpose and a background, and how the act of sharing a meal together is so important in the Middle Eastern countries.

Word Count: 521

http://recipes.wikia.com/wiki/Category:Arabian_Desserts

http://www.canadianarabcommunity.com/arabiccuisine.php

http://www.grapeleaves.us/Mediterranian-Cuisine/middle-eastern-cuisine-article.html

Cultural Portfolio: Eid-al-Fitr

Andrea Stinson

Cultural Portfolio: Eid-al-Fitr

Eid-al-Fitr is a holiday in the Arabic culture that falls on the first day of the month of Shawwal. It is also called the feast of breaking fast because it marks the end of a month of fasting and praying called Ramadan. It is a very important holiday for not only Arabic culture but also Muslims worldwide as it is a religious holiday, not a political one. Different regions will celebrate at different times because the month of Shawwal starts based on the moon and different regions will have different moon cycles. However, it is becoming most common for people to celebrate the same time as Saudi Arabia.

During the day there are communal prayers and many will attend a sermon called the khutba. The prayers are generally done in a large hall or an open field and is an Islamic prayer that consists of 2 different units. After the sermon, many focus on forgiveness of each other and will visit with family. Some Muslims will travel in order to do attend an Eid-al-Fitr sermon or prayer sessions. Communities come together as well and often will hold celebrations after the sermons. Zakat al-Fitr is a gift of food given to charity and is a very important part of Eid-al-Fitr. It is believed that one must give zakat al-Fitr before participating in the Eid prayer.

Though it is a widespread holiday, different locations vary in their traditions. In Egypt they have a traditional cookie called the Kahka which is filled with nuts and covered with sugar as well as many other foods that they will celebrate with. In Sudan they also celebrate with large amounts of food and the women will decorate their hands and feet with henna. In Saudi Arabia there is a huge focus on hospitality and generosity, as complete stranger will greet each other, shopkeepers may give out free gifts to customers, and men will buy large quantities of staples such as rice and leave them on the doorsteps of those less fortunate.

Though it varies by region and there are many different traditions, the main focus of the holiday is on unity and values, and Eid-Al-Fitr marks a day for celebration in Arabic culture.

Sources

“Eid-al-Fitr (End of Ramadan) in United Arab Emirates.” United Arab Emirates Calendar. http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/united-arab-emirates/eid-al-fitr

“Islamic Culture and Holidays- Eid ul-Fitr.” http://blogs.arabicpod101.com/blog/2009/09/01/islamic-culture-and-holidays-eid-ul-fitr/

“Eid- al- Fitr.” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr

Culture Entry #1 Ian Rollins

The Hajj: Islam’s Holiest Pillar

          Islam requires each of its adherents to live by a set of five obligations, or pillars, that each Muslim man and woman is obligated to live by and fulfill within his or her lifetime.  The final, and most important, of these pillars is the Hajj (حخ)- the pilgrimage to Mecca.  Over the course of a few days, millions of men and women travel to Saudi Arabia to partake in what is commonly seen as the pinnacle of religious experiences for Muslims, and while both costly and time-consuming, is one of the holiest duties a Muslim can undertake.
           The Hajj is an important act for Muslims to follow in that it retraces the steps Muhammad took as he and his followers left the city of Medina and marched into Mecca, where the prophet cleansed the Ka'aba and consecrated it to Allah.  Another belief that predates Muhammad’s journey comes from Hagar and Ishmael, Abraham’s second wife and her son.  According to tradition, after being abandoned by Abraham, Hagar ran between the hills of Marwa and Safa seven times looking for food to save her and her son.  She prayed to Allah, and he answered by having a Well, the Zamzam Well, sprang up when the infant’s heel struck the ground.

           The Hajj follows a set of rituals that must be completed in order for a Muslim to successfully complete their pilgrimage.  These begin with the Tawaf (طواف), where pilgrims circle the Ka’aba seven times counterclockwise. After this one perfroms the sa’i, which requires one to run between the hills of Marwa and Safa, a reenactment of Hagar’s search for water.  Following the seventh time between the hills, pilgrims head to the Well to drink from its waters. 

           The next ritual required in the Hajj is the Arafat (عرفات).  Here Muslims must pray for forgiveness for their sins, spending an afternoon on the plain in front of Mt. Arafat.  At sunset, pilgrims end Arafat and begin the next ritual, Muzdalifah (مزدلفة).  For this ritual, pilgrims collect pebbles for the next day’s ritual.  Muzdalifah also requires pilgrims to spend the night asleep in the open.  The next day, a new ritual, the Rami al Jamarat (رمي الجمرات) begins.  This ritual entails pilgrims to throw the stones at the devil, represented by long wall, similar to how Abraham pelted the Devil with stones.

           After the casting of the stones, the Eid al-Adha (الأضحى‎ عيد) occurs.  This ritual, the Festival of the Sacrifice, is meant to represent Abarham’s willing to sacrifice Ishmael with the sacrifice of animals, usually sheep or camels.  Upon the completion of Eid al-Adha, pilgrims then perform the Tawaf al-Wida (الطواف ال يضاا), the farewell prayer.  Following this, pilgrims return home or travel onward to the city of Medina, where they can visit the grave of Muhammad.

Sources:

Hafiz, Yasmine. "Hajj 2013, Islam's Pilgrimage To Mecca: Facts, History And Dates Of

The Muslim Holiday." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 11 Oct. 2013. Web. 08 Feb. 2014. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/11/hajj-2013_n_4064513.html.

“Hajj." Hajj. Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington DC, 2013. Web. 08 Feb.

2014. http://www.saudiembassy.net/issues/hajj/.

“The Five Pillars Of Islam." The Five Pillars Of Islam. Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington DC, 2013. Web. 07 Feb. 2014. http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/Islam/five_pillars_of_Islam.aspx.

Culture Portfolio #1- Lebanese Civil War

Before the 1970’s Lebanon was known as the Switzerland of the Middle East and its capitol, Beirut, was known as the Paris of the Middle East. In the early 60s President Chehab tried to improve the well being of Lebanon. After his term the financial gap between the poor and the rich widened. By the early 70s a “poverty belt” was surrounding Beirut. That socioeconomic gap was exacerbated when Palestinian refugees started pouring into the country. On April 13^th 1975 tensions between Muslims, Maronites, and the Druze exploded into bloodshed when an unidentified gunman fired shots into an East Beirut church, killing four people.  Hours later thirty Palestinians were killed.

               Maronites, Muslims, and Druzes fought with another in a back in forth struggle that included Battle of Hotels, the Karintina Massacre, the Damour Massacre, and Black Saturday. Eventually Syria and Israel entered the fray with Syria coming into the north towards the north helping the Muslims first, then the Maronites, and then the Muslims again. Israel troops came from the south and initially stopped their infiltration of the country at the Litani River. Israel aided the Maronites, but they really wanted to drive the Palestinian Liberation Organization of the country. After 1981 Israel expanded their strategy and set their eyes north.

In 1981 Israel started bombing Beirut. This attack drew the ire of the international community 300 Lebanese civilians were killed and 800 were wounded. Matters were made worse when Israel was laid siege to Beirut in June 15^th 1982. Israel was also held responsible for allowing the massacre of 3,000 refugees at the Sabra and ShatilaI camps. In response a multinational force (including the US) was sent to Beirut to oversee the withdrawal of Israeli troops, Syrian troops, and PLO members from the capitol. The US and France withdrew its forces in 1983 after the 1983 Beirut Barrack bombings. The country’s institution’s deterioration was highlighted by the fall in value of the Lebanese pound and the failure to elect a new president in 1988. In March 1989, General Aoun took leadership and declared a “war of liberation” in order to drive out the remaining Syrian troops. His clashes caused great damage to Eastern Beirut. He was stripped of control of the Lebanese army, but he still retained some influence.

In October 1989, the Ta’if Agreement signaled the end of the war. The Lebanese government was modified to reduce Maronite influence and allow equal representation of Muslims and Maronites in government posts. This agreement allowed Syria to hold some influence in Lebanon and called for Israel to withdraw all its troops from Lebanon. Rene Moawad was elected as the new president, but he was assassinated in November 22^nd 1989. Elias Hrawi was elected soon after. General Aoun opposed both the Ta’if Agreement and the legitimacy of President Hrawi. In 1990 Lebanese and Syrian forces attacked Aoun’s stronghold, killed many of his troops, and forced General Aoun into exile. The war claimed the 120,000 lives.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon/279120/Civil-war

http://www.globeatwar.com/blog-entry/memoriam-30th-anniversary-beirut-marine-barracks-bombing